![]() ![]() More formal tests of causal understanding with apes in captivity report that all four apes species show a clear understanding of causal relations (Mulcahy & Call, 2006b, but see Horner & Whiten, 2007), using tools flexibly to negotiate food around obstacles. This learnt skill highlights the interplay of the material and social world that primates negotiate individuals learn about the causal relations of their physical environment from both personal interaction and social observation. apella) showing indiscriminate and ineffectual preferences for tool material, and their skill increasing with age (Pouydebat et al., 2006). This skill appears to be learnt during the monkey's development, with young brown capuchin monkeys ( C. White bearded capuchin monkeys ( Cebus libidinosus), for example, select substrates of specific weight and material to use as hammers when cracking nuts (Visalberghi et al., 2008). The ability of primates to manufacture tools to specific requirements demonstrates an understanding of causal relations and physical properties ( causal understanding). ![]() Both ape and monkey species use tools to eat otherwise inaccessible foods (Ottoni & Mannu, 2001 Whiten, 2011). The sensory-motor cognition of primates is highlighted by their dexterous use of tools. This flexibility may require mental representation and both ape ( Pan troglodytes) and monkey ( Macaca fascicularis, Papio anubis and Saimiri sciureus) species are able to apply Roman numerals to specific quantities in ways comparable with young children, and use such numerals for simple arithmetic (Boysen & Berntson, 1989 Olthof, et al., 1997 Schmitt & Fischer, 2011). Chimpanzees, for example, are able to select specific tools and save them to solve particular tasks at a later time (Mulcahy & Call, 2006a) and, when foraging for fruits in their environment, monkeys ( Lophocebus albigena)have been reported to apply knowledge of the past days' temperatures to determine on which trees ripe fruit will now be likely found (Janmaat et al., 2006). Primates' memory also allows for future planning. Indeed, the working memory capacities of captive chimpanzees, in some cases, may outdo the performance of humans (Inoue & Matsuzawa, 2007 but see Cook & Wilson, 2010). Furthermore, like humans, monkeys ( Macaca mulatta) and apes ( Pan troglodytes) are able to recall serial lists of images (Inoue & Matsuzawa, 2007 Sands & Wright, 1980). The memory of primates has been studied fairly extensively, revealing, for example, that apes are able to recall locations of items after delays of up to 16 hours (Menzel, 1999) and replicate novel actions demonstrated to them over 24 hours previously (Hopper, 2010). For instance, chimpanzee females are more likely to plan routes following paths that will lead them to food sources whereas males appear more concerned with monitoring the border of their territory (Bates & Byrne, 2009). Of course, the foci of individual interest may vary, even within species, revealing flexibility in primate decision-making. Cognitive mapping is essential for increasing fitness, because in dense environments vision is often extremely limited,and fruiting trees (or other valuable resources) may not be easily visible planning travel paths thus reduces energy expenditure and search costs. Pan troglodytes and Gorilla gorilla)will take the most efficient routes, maximizing the available food that they pass (Asensio, et al., 2011 Bates & Byrne, 2009 Janson, 1998 Vedder, 1984), to reach preferred fruiting trees (Ban et al., 2014). Hylobates lar and Cebus apella) and apes (e.g. When navigating their environment, primates do not travel aimlessly, but move about it in a directed manner. Importantly, cognitive mapping allows primates to remember not just where physical landmarks are (e.g., trees) but also salient and changing features (when that tree will bear fruit). Within their home range, primates need to understand and recall the features that lie within it, which requires both cognitive mapping skills and a flexible memory. Across the world, primates have to master an array of environmental topographies, negotiate weather extremes, and move about their territory safely and efficiently. ![]()
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